Tell Halif Stratigraphic history

GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION

Tell Halif (31 23' N, 34 52' E), is located at the juncture of three environmental zones (Judaean hills, Shephelah and Negev) and overlooks the route from Gaza into the Judaean Hills toward Hebron and Jerusalem. Halif shares a valley with neighboring Beit Mirsim. Nearby sites are Beit Mirsim, Sera’, Nejilla, Arad and Beersheba.

Because it receives 300 mm. rainfall annually, environmental factors dominated its history, restricting Halif to intermittent occupation from late Chalcolithic times until Iron Age centralized governments altered regional settlement pattered. Similarly, the introduction of dry-farming techniques and water catchment systems in Byzantine times produced, again at the urging of government, relatively large populations in the region.

In the Bronze ages, however, because of environmental limitations Halif and Beit Mirsim exhibited complementary settlement histories. Without substantial irrigation, unavailable to the ancients, the soil could not tolerate repeated deep-plowing, limiting use of arable land. (Fauna and flora samples from Bronze Age strata are consistent with steppe desert conditions and provide background to this pattern.) As a result, populations alternated between the sites with little overlap. Only with the onset of interests of empires, probably to manage the frontier, were both sites occupied simultaneously.

The geological stratum underlying the Halif region (Eocene chalk laced with chert) may have attracted (re)settlement and fortification; Early Bronze III residents exploited chert sources in producing Canaanean-style blades for presumed distribution. In t eh Late Bronze Age Halif was resettled as a non-fortified village, probably in order to service traffic between Gaza and the hill country.

EXPLORATIONS

Early surveys and excavations produced a misleading history of Halif. Aharoni(1967), in his survey of the northern Negev, reported that Halif contained neither Early nor Late Bronze remains. Discovery of a Middle Bronze II burial cave (1971) no published) led to the prediction that Halif was “Hyksos” town. These conclusions were corrected by modern excavation which uncovered four Early and four Late Bronze strata, but nothing of Middle Bronze.

Gophna (1972) and Alon (1974) found Early Bronze I and Chalcolithic remains on the terrace near the fields east of the tel. Biran and Gophna (1970), Seger (1973) and Alon (not published) excavated a large number of Iron Age tombs: Gophna and Zusman (1974) and Kloner excavated four Roman period tombs.

Under the direction of Joe D. Seger the Lahav Research Project (LRP) initiated full-scale investigations of Halif in 1976. Seger directed Phases I and II (1976-1990), involving excavation, regional survey and ethnoarchaeological research. Phase III (1992-94), co-directed by Paul Jacobs and Oded Borowski, concentrated excavations on the mound and included a component of regional mapping.

Phase I completed a sounding in Field I, showing intermittent occupation from Early Bronze III until mid-20th century E.E. Additional sounding were begun in Fields II and III on the mound, and in probes on lower terraces. Phase II aimed for broad exposures of Early and Late Bronze strata in Field I, Iron II fortifications along the northwest crest of the tel. Excavation in Sites 101 and 301 on the terrace east of the tell recovered Early Bronze I and late Chalcolithic remains. Phase III of LRP concentrated on Persian and Iron remains in Field IV.

EXCAVATIONS

Chalcolithic-Early Bronze I (Strata XVII-XVI). Halif’s earliest habitation was located on a terrace above the agricultural fields northeast of the tel. Three subphases of Chalcolithic and four phases of Early Bronze I were identified in Sites 101 and 301.

A Chalcolithic subterranean dwelling unit, an expanded natural cave in Site 101, contained the earliest stratified remains at the site. It was also used in the production of pottery (the lower portion of a potter’s “wheel” was found) and other household goods. Although fine ware and other typical Chalcolithic materials were present, a crude, handmade, straw-tempered cup, unusual because of its shape and quantity among the cave’s vessels, characterized the ceramics.

Skeletal remains of two of the earliest Chalcolithic occupants were discovered on the cave floor, possibly the victims of the cave’s collapse. Post-collapse occupation inside the cave’s depression evolved into Early Bronze I culture, one of the few stratified Chalcolithic-Early Bronze developments in the region.

The occupation traces in Sites 101 and 301 suggest a dispersed village in Early Bronze I. Deep (1.5 m.) brick-lined silos characterized Site 301 as a public storage facility. Str. XVI rectilinear house 100025 in Site 101 is noteworthy because of its construction technique and Egyptian ceramic materials found within it (Seger et al 1990). The walls consisted of mudbricks on a cobble foundation, the four corners anchored by large boulders; the brick courses were laid in a manner similar to Egyptian construction techniques.

Early Bronze III (Strata XV-XII). Occupation on the high tel began with the founding of a walled town (Stratum XV) ca. 2500 B.C.E. In Field I directly on bedrock the builders placed Curtain Wall A7008 (3.5 m. wide) and Tower 8022 (seven m. wide), whose stone base survived to four m. with a brick superstructure 1.25 m. higher. Three cavities in the superstructure were probably guardposts. In Field III a double wall fortification system was found, the outer Wall A5028 matching the 3.5 m. width recorded in Field I. The fortification was strengthened in Field I by a four m. deep Ramp )or “Glacis”) 7007 of crushed chalk against the outer face of the town’s wall, retained at its base Wall 5006 six m. downslope. In Field III the builders adapted bedrock for protection, constructing the outer wall along a four m. precipice.

A single phase of Str. XV (earth Floor A5024 between the fortification walls) was found in Field III, in Field I three phases. The final phase included an ascending stepped Path 8037 along Tower 8022, presumably leading to living quarters. Following the burning and temporary abandonment of Str. XV, natural forces deposited ash and brick Detritus 8036 (three m. deep) from the upper town, burying the fortifications at its lowest point. Two earlier phases of Str. XV were found below Path 8037, both domestic architecture against Tower 8022 and Wall A7008.

Three Early Bronze III non-fortified towns succeeded Str. XV in Field I, lasting to the end of the Early Bronze period. In Str. XIV houses with deep stone foundation walls were built in a series of terraces up the contours of Field I. Str. XIII included a street (with six subphases) flanked by domestic buildings, also terraced on the slope. Str.XII, disturbed by pitting of Str. XI, represented degeneration of Early Bronze culture at Halif. Based on the numbers of chert cores and blades recovered, it seems likely that these Early Bronze III towns participated in production and distribution of Canaanean typ lithic tools, perhaps the reason for continued occupation of Halif after the destruction of Str. XV and the disappearance of other Early Bronze sites from the region.

Late Bronze-Iron I (Strata XI-VII). Following a hiatus of five centuries Halif was repopulated at the transition between the Middle and Late Bronze ages. Str. IX was short-lived, with houses hurriedly erected, incorporating surviving walls of Str. XII. Str. X, however, was carefully constructed. Heavy foundations were set over Str. XI remnants to build a 18 m. x 18 m. house, a square building whose interior space was irregularly divided into rooms. With a clerestory central room, the house incorporated timbers into one of the brick and stone walls in “half-timber” effect (Jacobs 1987). Evidence suggests that Str. X was an agency of Egyptian politico-economic interests: (a) the style and techniques of the house imply a wealth not anticipated on the basis of Str. XI remains; construction may have been supported by external sources; (b) the regional survey reported complete absence of signs of exploitation of land or raw materials beyond the limits of the high tel, suggesting that Late Bronze occupants received provisions from an external source; (c) Late Bronze fauna evidence included an unusually high percentage of immature donkeys (M. Zeder in Seger et al 1990), suggesting involvement in trade via the selling of pack animals along the road from Gaza to the hills.

Str. X was destroyed by fire, perhaps a victim of war among Palestinian city-states of the Amarna Age. Rebuilding was immediate, though only portions of two buildings with connecting “courtyards” were within the digging areas. Str. IX also ended in fire.

The final Late Bronze Str. VIII presents a complete alteration of architecture and function of the site. The ruins of Str. IX were buried beneath loads of stones; clay and loess, deposited wet over the stones, served as a deep (two m.) platform into which stone-lined silos were cut. The same platform material was discovered in a probe in Field II, also associated with a stone-lined silo. In Str. VIII, Late Bronze IIB., the site functioned as a depot for collection/distribution of grain; only a single domestic unit, built into the north edge of the platform, was found. This architecture may best be explained as response to increased call for grain and other tribute by Egypt and its regional capitol Gaza. The numerous stone-lined silos which appear at other sites in the region at this time, may likewise best be understood as a result of the new systematic cultivation of previously fallow land.

The Iron Age at Halif appears to have evolved from the final phase of Late Bronze; there was no stratigraphical break between the two. Unfortunately, evidence is limited to a single room in Field I (with eight phases from Late Bronze IB. through Iron I), other Iron I remains, except for an isolated stone-lined silo in Field III, having been destroyed in the retrieval of building stones or in World War I trenching. Nonetheless, it is necessary to conclude that the Iron I population and culture found their ancestors in the Late Bronze.

Iron II (Strata VI). Iron II Str. VI has been found extensively on and off the mound. At this time Halif was a border town of the Biblical kingdoms, complete with caseate fortifications and stone-covered Glacis. In Fields III and IV houses built against the caseate had been destroyed in a conflagration probably in 701 B.C.E. Halif was briefly resettled, presumably by survivors of the Assyrian raids, certain rooms of the town cleared and reused in a “squatter” phase.

Two-storied pillared buildings appeared in every segment of Fields III and IV (Borowski, in press). Assemblages of artifacts trapped in the destruction of the buildings (from ground floors as well as from debris of upper stories) has helped determine specific activity areas in houses, elements of town planning and the role of Halif in the region.

Cultic materials (consisting of a ceramic fenestrated incense burner, two carved limestone blocks, possibly masseboth, the molded head of a pillar-Astarte figurine, and a possible flat stone altar) on floor G8005 in Field IV raise particular interest. The house-shrine was found among ordinary kitchen vessels and tools. This setting adds evidence of the exercise of multi-religions (participation in several religions simultaneously, each for different situations in life) among many ancient Judaeans.

Persian-Hellenistic (Strata V-VI). Halif was clearly reoccupied in the Persian period. In Field IV several hundred fragments of mold-made ceramic figurines of the Persian style were found mostly in nonstratified loci, similar to those found elsewhere in Palestine and the Levant. A single building (along with several stone-lined pits) of this period has been found, in Field II near the center of the mound. Evidence points to late, fifth century B.C.E., Persian occupation.

Above the Field II Persian building a Hellenistic period domestic building was constructed probably in mid-fourth century B.C.E. A burial sealed by the floor of the second phase of the Hellenistic house included a coin either from the reign of Ptolemy II (ca. 267 B.C.E.) Or from the second minting by Ptolemy III Euergetes (between 247 and 222 B.C.E.)

Roman-Byzantine (Strata III-II). Late in the second century C.E. occupation began at the foot of the mound, probably as Tilla. Apparently a prosperous village in the Roman-Byzantine era, occupation spread along the east and north slopes, frequently making use of caves for basement storage or as dwelling units. Regional population also continued to increase during Roman into Byzantine periods; all of the major sites within the four km. regional survey were either reoccupied or established and the arable lands put under intense agriculture production. Of particular interest among these settlements is Hurvat Rimmon, two km. south of Halif, which had become a center Jewish life in the region, where Kloner (1980) revealed a synagogue of the third to sixth centuries C.E. Neighboring Abu Hof was apparently a parallel Christian village (possibly a monastery); the remains of two churches were uncovered by D. Alon in 1981.

Islamic and Modern Arabic (Strata II-I). Excavation within and around a cave dwelling at the foot of Field I (Cave Complex A) indicated nearly continuous occupation from the Umayyad or Abbasid periods through the Islamic period with resettlement in the late nineteenth or early twentieth century C.E. Although much of the Islamic period remains are beneath modern Kibbutz Lahav, salvage excavation in 1985 recorded houses constructed of cut ashlars built above small cave “cellars”, these units subsequently incorporated into foundations of the Modern Arabic construction.

Modern occupation of Khuweilifeh was investigated both by excavation of Cave Complex A and by means of ethnographic interview of former villagers, including surviving occupants of Cave Complex A. Correlation of artifacts from excavation and interviews determined that the cave had been the home of a carpenter, whose main occupation was manufacturing of iron-tipped plows. The village of Khuweilifeh included both Bedouin of the Ramadin tribe and affiliated fellahin (peasants) and served as a weekly market for the region (in the period prior to World War I). Bedouin resided in tents (although one of the sheikhs had built a stone house for himself near the end of residency at Khuweilifeh), the fellahin lived in the caves (perhaps as seasonal housing) and worked as craftsmen, sharecroppers, shepherds, and traders.